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The currency reform was designed to punish people who used these markets and, more specifically, to make sure that they did not become too wealthy or powerful enough to threaten the regime. Keeping them poor was safer. Black markets are not the whole story. People in North Korea also keep their savings in wons because there are few banks in Korea, and they are all owned by the government. In effect, the government used the currency reform to expropriate much of people’s savings.

所有人都成了皇帝的奴才，奴才有时甚至成了一种资格。比如像清朝，在现存清宫档案中有大植的奏折，谁能够对皇帝自称“奴才”，这是要有规定的。一般的汉族大臣向皇帝上奏，只能说“臣某某”，比如林则徐，他就要说“臣林则徐启奏皇帝陛下”，只有满族亲贵琦善、穆彰阿这些人，他们给皇帝上奏才可以说“奴才琦善启奏皇帝陛下”，“奴才穆彰阿启奏皇帝陛下”，敢称“家奴”者一定是满人而且是关系很亲密的人，不是谁想当奴才都可以当上的

small differences open up, and then disappear, and then reappear again. However, when a critical juncture arrives, these small differences that have emerged as a result of institutional drift may be the small differences that matter in leading otherwise quite similar societies to diverge radically.

大夫和贤良文学的争论反映了中国后世王朝经常可以看到的一种现象，尽管“文武之道，一张一弛”，始终有“有为”和“无为”的斗争，但是这个有为、无为和我们现在讲的福利国家、自由放任迥异。今天我们讲的放任主要是给老百姓以自由，但是那个时候讲的放任，很大程度上是指给权贵以自由，放纵他们去聚敛，让这些当官的任意创收

在儒家看来，天子不是把天下给自己一家继承，而是层层分封下去，天子分封诸侯，诸侯分封大夫，大夫封给诸士……一直到庶人都各有份地，使“人人亲其亲，长其长，而天下平”。每个人都不是只顾自己，而是替自己周围的人、替自己所在的小共同体，包括小共同体的主人着想，我孝敬爹，忠于直接的主人，主人又忠于他的主人，直到陪臣忠于诸侯，诸侯忠于天子，反过来每一级主人又都保护自己的附庸。那就是“天下为公”了。 但是在法家看来，每个人不为皇帝着想那就是“私”，哪怕是杀身成仁，舍生取义，舍已为人，只要为的不是皇上，那也是私，其至可能是更加危险的私，即所谓“亲亲则别，爱私则险”。只有每个人都为皇上坑亲杀熟，不仅把自己的一切奉献给皇上，还要把别人的一切也抢过来献给皇上，那才是为公，即所谓“公战”

sustained economic growth requires innovation, and innovation cannot be decoupled from creative destruction, which replaces the old with the new in the economic realm and also destabilizes established power relations in politics. Because elites dominating extractive institutions fear creative destruction, they will resist it, and any growth that germinates under extractive institutions will be ultimately short lived.

今天很多人对于福利政策也是不以为然的，但是他们的表述都不会这么难听，不能说这些穷人穷死活该，国家没责任。他们往往会说其实济贫用别的办法更好，比如发展民间公益组织或曰“第三部门”，会比国家救济更有效率。比如说福利可以少一些，自由应该多一些，这样会给他们提供更多的就业机会。比如“授人以鱼不如授人以渔”，给他们搞职业培训，会比救济帮助更大，等等

Even trade within the Americas was heavily regulated. For example, a merchant in a colony such as New Spain, roughly modern Mexico, could not trade directly with anyone in New Granada, modern Colombia. These restrictions on trade within the Spanish Empire reduced its economic prosperity and also, indirectly, the potential benefits that Spain could have gained by trading with another, more prosperous empire. Nevertheless, they were attractive because they guaranteed that the silver and gold would keep flowing to Spain.