ClippingKK

History is key, since it is historical processes that, via institutional drift, create the differences that may become consequential during critical junctures. Critical junctures themselves are historical turning points. And the vicious and virtuous circles imply that we have to study history to understand the nature of institutional differences that have been historically structured.

每天深夜时分，高处的密林里会传来阵阵风声，配合这周遭的地形可谓阴森恐怖，夜间军队驻扎在这里，哪怕只是遭到小股敌人的骚扰，也很容易诱发在古代让主帅为之色变的营啸。所谓“营啸”，指古代军队行军作战中，由于士兵精神长期处于紧张状态等因素，在小股敌人骚扰、气候变化这类外界刺激下集体逃跑甚至互相践踏、自相残杀的现象。如梁武帝初年北伐时，梁军声势之大在整个南北朝期间都数一数二，初期

The Bolshevik Revolution advertised its aim as replacing the exploitative economic system of tsarist Russia with a more just and efficient one that would bring freedom and prosperity to millions of Russians. Alas, the outcome was the opposite, and much more repressive and extractive institutions replaced those of the government the Bolsheviks overthrew. The experiences in China, Cuba, and Vietnam were similar. Many noncommunist, top-down reforms fared no better.

THERE ARE HUGE DIFFERENCES in living standards around the world. Even the poorest citizens of the United States have incomes and access to health care, education, public services, and economic and social opportunities that are far superior to those available to the vast mass of people living in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Central America.

国忠处理货币危机最难得的地方在于，作为高高在上的顶级官僚，他能够摆正政府的位置，把政府当成一个竞争者，与市场上的造假者争夺消费者，服务消费

如何应对巨额军费，解决财政收入问题，成为玄宗朝人事变化与政治斗争的一条重要主线。正是在这样的背景下，玄宗皇帝不得不猛烈地扩大纳税人口，巨幅增

光翙被杀后，王承业害怕重蹈覆辙，并不会第一时间出兵河北打击安禄山，加之朝廷猜忌安禄山曾经挂名节度使数年的河东镇存在不可靠分子，这些因素都会大大影响河东镇发挥作用。事实上，王承业整个任期内都没能做出有效的部署，直到第二年初李光弼成为新任河东节度使，才对叛军做出有效应对。这样一来，太原方向对于叛军侧后的威胁就被延后

唐军都是西北边镇精锐也就罢了，现在其中充斥着中央军残部和新招募民兵等纪律性很差的杂牌，一旦遇到敌人夜晚偷袭，很容易引发营啸。也许正是在第一晚驻军西原时，唐军高层看到了军中士气的不稳定，尤其是大量新兵带来的人心浮动，于是决定在第二天早上抓紧时间全力进军，争取尽快突破秦函谷关故地这一段狭窄地形，冲向洛阳