ClippingKK

the ability of those who dominate extractive institutions to benefit greatly at the expense of the rest of society implies that political power under extractive institutions is highly coveted, making many groups and individuals fight to obtain it. As a consequence, there will be powerful forces pushing societies under extractive institutions toward political instability. The synergies between extractive economic and political institutions create a vicious circle, where extractive institutions, once in place, tend to persist. Similarly, there is a virtuous circle associated with inclusive economic and political institutions. But neither the vicious nor the virtuous circle is absolute. In fact, some nations live under inclusive institutions today because, though extractive institutions have been the norm in history, some societies have been able to break the mold and transition toward inclusive institutions.

这就是陌生人打交道的逻辑。一次性的博弈通常是“零和博弈”，你输我赢甚全你死我活都可以，但是如果双方“抬头不见低头见”，知道博弈将无限重复，那就大概率会追求“双赢”，形成一种伦理关系。即便双方不平等，有长幼尊卑之别，但如果双方终生相守，甚至祖祖辈辈都得相处在一起，这个博弈就是长期的。不能做一锤子买卖，互动过程既然多次重复，肯定就要考虑长期回报，就不能一次把事情做绝了，否则很难长期相处

extractive institutions pave the way for complete state failure, destroying not only law and order but also even the most basic economic incentives.

Convicts were the only labor force, and the only way to incentivize them was to pay them wages for the work they were doing.

THERE ARE HUGE DIFFERENCES in living standards around the world. Even the poorest citizens of the United States have incomes and access to health care, education, public services, and economic and social opportunities that are far superior to those available to the vast mass of people living in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Central America.

Marx’s vision was a system that would generate prosperity under more humane conditions and without inequality. Lenin and his Communist Party were inspired by Marx, but the practice could not have been more different from the theory.

It was the Glorious Revolution that strengthened and rationalized property rights, improved financial markets, undermined state-sanctioned monopolies in foreign trade, and removed the barriers to the expansion of industry. It was the Glorious Revolution that made the political system open and responsive to the economic needs and aspirations of society.

Extractive institutions then not only pave the way for the next regime, which will be even more extractive, but they also engender continuous infighting and civil wars. These civil wars then cause more human suffering and also destroy even what little state centralization these societies have achieved. This also often starts a process of descent into lawlessness, state failure, and political chaos, crushing all hopes of economic prosperity,