ClippingKK

and the true measure of pluralism is precisely its ability to resist such attempts. Pluralism also enshrines the notion of the rule of law, the principle that laws should be applied equally to everybody—something that is naturally impossible under an absolutist monarchy. But the rule of law, in turn, implies that laws cannot simply be used by one group to encroach upon the rights of another. What’s more, the principle of the rule of law opens the door for greater participation in the political process and greater inclusivity, as it powerfully introduces the idea that people should be equal not only before the law but also in the political system.

The consequence of all this absolutist control of the economy was predictable: the Chinese economy was stagnant throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries while other economies were industrializing. By the time Mao set up his communist regime in 1949, China had become one of the poorest countries in the world.

强国弱民”不仅是秦的事实，而且是统治者明确的追求。在世界各种学问中，大概商鞅、韩非之学，是最赤裸裸地提出国的利益和老百姓的利益是绝然对立的。也就是说，国要强大，老百姓就得趴下，国家的利益里是没有强民、富民这一项的。 《商君书》专门有一章叫《弱民》，其中就提到“民弱国强，民强国弱；故有道之国，务在弱民”。就是说，国家要强大，老百姓就得趴下；老百姓如果站起来了，国家就完蛋了，因此国家强大的最重要条件，就是要把老百姓彻底踩在脚下。而且商鞅说，一个国家要战胜敌国，首先要做的就是战胜自己的人民

我们通常从人之常情讲，受宠的奴才管理不受宠的奴才，往往要比主人亲自管理奴才更糟糕，对奴才的怜惜和照顾的程度恐怕要更差。因为道理很简单，就算奴才不具人格只被视为财产，而个人的奴才不管怎么样，“产权明晰”是你自己的，这个所有权是很清楚的。比如你有一匹马，这一匹马既然是你的，你总不会无缘无故把它虐待死，杀了它对你有什么好处？你的“财产”不就损失了吗？大家都知道“兔子不吃窝边草”这个道理，那是因为窝边草是它自己的，它更愿意去吃别人的草

Nevertheless, once in place, inclusive economic and political institutions tend to create a virtuous circle, a process of positive feedback, making it more likely that these institutions will persist and even expand.

老子那个时代，还可以说你们何必那么积极进取，变化那么快干吗？现在小国寡民不是很好吗？他讲的“无为”其实是针对秦制。然而到了庄周时代，已经没有小国寡民了，恰恰相反，那时“霸道”已经成了一个基本的现实，强者为王，弱者为食，弱肉强食的秩序横行。这时候庄周和事老般地说，算了吧，算了吧，其实我们不必去争什么，这样顺着走，就挺不错。这时候他讲的“无为”，其实背后已经没有了西周式小国寡民的理念，顺其自然已经日益变成顺从秦制，变成不讲是非的犬儒主义

在整个过程中，刘邦等汉帝国统治者要推动的一个事业就是“汉承秦制”。他们当然不希望周制再回来，不欢迎封建制被重建。而当时讲法家已经不合时宜了，因为法家实在太极端赤裸裸了，被天下人所厌弃，没有人喜欢听那些“坑民”“害民”“与民为敌”的东西，面对这样的统治者，怎么能伸着脖子任其涂炭。如果法家不行，在儒道两家中，应该说道家也就是当时所谓的黄老学说更适应“汉承秦制”的需要，这才是黄老之治在汉初能够盛行的重要原因

British democracy was not given by the elite. It was largely taken by the masses, who were empowered by the political processes that had been ongoing in England and the rest of Britain for the last several centuries. They had become emboldened by the changes in the nature of political institutions unleashed by the Glorious Revolution. Reforms were granted because the elite thought that reform was the only way to secure the continuation of their rule, albeit in a somewhat lessened form.